Headaches are common across all age groups. Headache is the seventh most frequent reason for medical consultations. It is important to identify what type of headache is present and what the causes are. There are various types of headaches, with the most common being tension-type headaches and migraines.

Tension headaches are usually steady, affect both sides of the head, and are often triggered by stress or muscle tension.

The second most common type is migraine, which presents as intense pain, typically unilateral, and is often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.

While painkillers can temporarily relieve headaches, accurate diagnosis is essential to rule out serious intracranial pathologies. After thorough diagnosis, targeted treatment can help make headaches more manageable.

A stroke is an acute disruption of the brain’s blood circulation that leads to damage of the brain tissue. As a result, neurological functions become impaired within seconds or minutes. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic and hemorrhagic.

Ischemic stroke occurs due to blockage of a blood vessel, preventing oxygenated blood from reaching brain tissue. Consequently, hypoxia develops in that region, and nerve cells are highly sensitive even to minimal changes in oxygen concentration. About 70-80% of strokes are ischemic.

In a hemorrhagic stroke, a blood vessel ruptures or is damaged, leading to bleeding either within the brain tissue or in the membranes surrounding the brain. Acute neurological symptoms such as weakness or sensory disturbance on one side of the body, speech disturbances, dizziness with nausea and vomiting appear within seconds or minutes.

Epilepsy is a relatively common neurological disorder affecting various age groups. It is characterized by loss of consciousness and primarily motor phenomena.

Epilepsy is generally categorized as primary or secondary. Primary epilepsy is usually genetic, associated with mutations in over 200 known genes, often manifesting in neonates or young children.

Secondary epilepsy results from another condition affecting the brain. Any process causing structural changes in brain tissue—such as brain tumors or post-stroke conditions—can trigger seizures.

Dizziness refers to a sensation of spinning or imbalance, where the person feels as though their surroundings are moving or they themselves are falling. It is often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, pallor, and a drop in heart rate.

The most common type is benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), which typically results from dislodged calcium particles in the inner ear, disrupting the balance mechanism. This causes short, intense spinning sensations triggered by head movements, such as getting out of bed or looking up.

Causes of dizziness vary. It often results from disturbances in the vestibular system, particularly in the inner ear and its neural connections. Other causes include hypertension, cerebral atherosclerosis, head trauma, and toxic exposures.

Infections of the inner ear, Ménière’s disease, or anxiety can also contribute.

ALS is a neurodegenerative disease that primarily affects motor neurons—specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that control muscles. In ALS, these neurons degenerate and die, leading to muscle twitching, rigidity, and progressive weakness due to muscle atrophy. This also causes difficulty with speech, swallowing, and breathing.

Although ALS can affect individuals of all ages, it typically begins after age 60.

As the disease is generally incurable, precise diagnosis is crucial to exclude other treatable conditions with similar symptoms.

However, recent years have seen significant advancements. In 2023, the U.S. approved Tofersen (Qalsody)—the first gene therapy for ALS linked to SOD1 mutation. It was approved in Europe in 2024 and represents a causative treatment.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, commonly affecting young adults. It is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system malfunctions and attacks the body's own nerve cells.

Normally, the immune system defends the body against foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses. In MS, this regulation fails, and the immune system misidentifies and damages nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, creating inflammatory lesions that later scar (sclerosis), hence the name.

MS symptoms vary based on the location and number of lesions. These include:

• Visual disturbances
• Numbness or sensory changes in limbs
• Muscle weakness and coordination issues

The most common type is relapsing-remitting MS.

Treatment has two phases:

• Acute flare-up management with high-dose corticosteroids
• Long-term immunomodulatory therapy to prevent new relapses and lesion formation

Although MS is not yet curable, it is considered manageable. The aim is to reduce disease activity and delay disability progression.

Lyme disease (borreliosis) is a tick-borne infection caused by Borrelia bacteria. If untreated, the bacteria can affect both the peripheral and central nervous systems, a stage referred to as neuroborreliosis.

Symptoms may include sensory disturbances in the limbs, pain syndromes, or facial nerve palsy. Brain lesions may also occur and can resemble those seen in MS on MRI, necessitating additional diagnostics to differentiate the two, as their treatment strategies differ significantly.

Treatment typically involves antibiotics prescribed by a physician. Early diagnosis and therapy are crucial to prevent severe complications and ensure full recovery.

Parkinson’s disease is a chronic, progressive neurological condition characterized primarily by movement disorders.

The condition arises from the loss or dysfunction of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. This leads to motor and speech disturbances. Movements slow down, muscles become stiff, facial expressions are reduced, and gait becomes shuffling. Salivation increases, and patients feel generally stiff and restricted.

Tremors—first in the hands, then the legs—are typical and worsen during rest or emotional stress.

Early neurological intervention is key to managing the disease effectively.

Often, individuals with memory issues are unaware of their condition; family members are usually the first to notice. These issues may point to dementia, most commonly Alzheimer’s disease or vascular dementia.

However, individuals with anxiety or depression may perceive themselves as forgetful. This is referred to as pseudodementia and is not due to actual neurodegeneration.

Nonetheless, if someone struggles with daily tasks, appears confused, or disoriented, it is important to consult a physician.

Documenting the onset and progression of symptoms—what is forgotten, how it affects daily life—can help doctors diagnose whether a memory disorder is present and determine its nature. In case of uncertainty, a specialist evaluation is recommended.

Pain lasting longer than six months is considered chronic. Unlike acute pain, which signals injury or disease, chronic pain persists and can severely impact quality of life.

It may result from prior injuries, surgeries, or diseases such as arthritis, fibromyalgia, or spinal disorders. In some cases, the cause remains unknown.

Chronic pain varies between individuals—it can be constant or intermittent—and often affects mood, sleep, and daily functioning.

There is no quick fix for chronic pain, but physicians can help develop a personalized management plan to improve life quality. Support is available, and pain can be made more manageable.

Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges—the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord—caused by viruses, bacteria, or certain autoimmune conditions.

People with autoimmune diseases or weakened immune systems are at higher risk.

Acute symptoms include fever with chills, headache, sensitivity to light or sound, neck stiffness, and general weakness. Nausea, vomiting, and skin rash may also occur.

Meningitis can be life-threatening due to the proximity of inflammation to vital nervous structures and is thus considered a medical emergency.

Encephalitis is the inflammation of brain tissue. Such inflammation is typically caused by infections (viruses, bacteria, or fungi). However, sometimes the cause of the inflammation is not the infection itself, but rather the body's immune system's incorrect response. As a result, the immune system starts producing antibodies against the brain's own nerve cells, which are called autoantibodies. This type is known as autoimmune encephalitis. It was first described in 2007, and our current knowledge about it is still limited.

The clinical presentation of autoimmune encephalitis is diverse and includes a wide range of symptoms. Unfortunately, there is no single characteristic symptom. Patients often suffer from neurological disturbances (motor problems, cranial nerve involvement, epileptic seizures, language and memory issues). Some patients exhibit significant behavioral changes, including severe psychiatric disorders (hallucinations, psychosis, catatonia), and later, vital body functions may be impaired, such as circulatory disturbances and respiratory problems.

Symptoms of infectious encephalitis may include headaches, fever, and confusion. Complications can include epileptic seizures, hallucinations, speech problems, amnesia, and hearing issues. The causes of infectious encephalitis may be viruses like herpes simplex and others, as well as bacteria, fungi, or parasites.

Diagnosis is usually based on symptoms, and diagnostic tests like blood tests, medical examinations, and cerebrospinal fluid analysis can aid in confirming the condition.

Polyneuropathy is a disease affecting several peripheral nerves (nerves that arise from the spinal cord and brain). The two most common causes are diabetes mellitus and alcohol abuse. There are also many other potential causes, including metabolic diseases, vitamin deficiencies (especially vitamin B12 and folic acid), kidney function disorders, toxins, chemotherapy, and immune-mediated polyneuropathies.

Signs of peripheral nervous system involvement include an inability to feel touch in the hands and feet, numbness or severe pain in the limbs, electric shock-like pain, inability to feel hot or cold air, difficulty picking up or grasping objects, balance problems, dizziness, or fainting.

Diagnostic measures aim to identify the type of damage and potential causes. Depending on the situation, diagnostic procedures may include extensive laboratory tests, lumbar puncture (cerebrospinal fluid analysis), electromyography, nerve sonography, and even nerve biopsy.

The muscular system is a vital component of the human body, responsible for movement, stability, and posture maintenance. Consisting of hundreds of individual muscles, it plays a crucial role in facilitating both voluntary and involuntary movements. However, like other body systems, the muscular system can be affected by various diseases and disorders.

Some of the diseases of the muscular system include:

• Muscular Dystrophy: A group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive muscle weakness and degeneration. The most well-known form is Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
• Myasthenia Gravis: An autoimmune disorder affecting communication between nerves and muscles, leading to muscle weakness and fatigue, making it difficult for individuals to perform daily tasks.
• Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis: These are autoimmune diseases that primarily affect muscles, causing muscle inflammation and weakness. Dermatomyositis is often associated with skin changes.

Prevention, early diagnosis, and proper management are important in combating these muscle disorders. Treatment may include physical therapy, medication, lifestyle changes, and, in some cases, surgery.

Intervertebral disc herniation is a spinal disorder caused by insufficient nutrition of the intervertebral disc, leading to its rupture and displacement of its contents (protrusion) into the spinal cord region. As a result, back pain, inflammatory processes, and nerve compression may occur. A neurologist's work involves examining nerve function. Through neurological examination, it is possible to determine whether the "nerve root" is merely irritated or actually damaged. This is the most important criterion for deciding whether surgery is necessary.

Disc herniations are often detected through MRI (even in asymptomatic individuals). It should be noted that the presence of a disc herniation does not always cause symptoms. There are several other potential "neurological causes" that may mimic disc herniation symptoms. If symptoms are not caused by a disc herniation, even the best spinal surgery will not resolve the underlying cause of the symptoms. Clarifying these issues is another critical aspect of neurological examination.

Therefore, close collaboration between spinal specialists, surgeons, and neurologists is crucial for determining the best treatment.

Causes of intervertebral disc herniation can include degenerative-dystrophic changes in the spine, spinal injury, excessive physical strain, or age-related changes.

Intervertebral disc herniation typically manifests as back pain. In the case of lumbar disc herniation, pain is localized to the lower back and radiates ("shoots") down the leg. Partial numbness in the legs, from thigh to foot, or tingling sensations in the toes and fingers may also occur. Cervical disc herniation manifests as pain in the upper back, radiating to the arms and shoulders.

Brain tumors can be either benign or malignant. They arise from various types of brain cells, grow at different rates, and not all are equally aggressive. Brain metastases are always malignant, as they originate from cancer in another organ. Brain tumors and brain metastases cause different symptoms, such as headaches, speech difficulties, weakness in one side of the body or a limb, epileptic seizures, and behavioral changes. Several treatment strategies exist, including surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.